PH livestock sector faces ₱9.9B losses from Super El Niño
Super El Niño events represent one of the most severe climate disruptions in tropical regions, marked by prolonged drought, extreme heat and rainfall anomalies.
In the Philippines, livestock systems — including hogs, poultry, ducks, goats, sheep, cattle and carabaos — are directly affected by heat stress, water scarcity and feed shortages. They are also indirectly affected by disease outbreaks, nutritional decline and economic instability.
This paper synthesizes empirical data, farmer case studies and global climate-livestock literature to quantify species-specific impacts under mild, moderate and severe scenarios.
Findings show that livestock productivity declines not only because of direct physiological stress but also because of systemic vulnerabilities in feed supply chains, disease control and farmer resilience. Meat, milk and egg productivity is projected to drop significantly from the second quarter through the end of the year and extend until 2028 because of the prolonged impact of Super El Niño.
Special care should be given to pregnant animals and young stock below 30% of their mature body weight, as these groups are especially vulnerable to abortion and stunting because of nutritional and heat stress.
Scenario modeling projects livestock losses of ₱7.6 billion to ₱9.9 billion under severe conditions, while socioeconomic chain impacts — including consumer price inflation, employment shocks, nutritional welfare losses and import dependence — could amount to ₱159 billion to ₱205 billion.
Hogs and broilers account for the largest share of losses, while cattle and carabaos highlight cascading effects on dairy, beef and rice production systems. Policy recommendations emphasize climate-resilient water infrastructure, feed security, disease management and cooperative governance to mitigate risks and stabilize production and consumption chains.
Livestock systems under climate stress
The commercial pig and poultry sectors are among the most organized livestock industries in the Philippines, represented by industry groups such as the Pork Producers Federation of the Philippines and the United Broiler Raisers Association.
These organizations work closely with the Bureau of Animal Industry to address industry concerns, including illegal importation, disease prevention and disease control. Because of their strong influence on policy development and regulatory decisions, government interventions often prioritize the interests of commercial producers over backyard producers.
Consequently, backyard and smallholder farmers may bear a disproportionate share of the adverse impacts of industry regulations and market adjustments, placing them at a relative disadvantage within the livestock sector.
Livestock production remains a cornerstone of Philippine food security and rural livelihoods, providing dietary protein and economic stability. Hogs and poultry supply the majority of animal protein consumed nationally, while cattle, goats, sheep, ducks and carabaos sustain mixed farming systems, contribute to cultural practices and support smallholder incomes.
According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, livestock and poultry together account for nearly 30% of total agricultural output, underscoring their centrality to the food system. However, the onset of Super El Niño intensifies climate anomalies, magnifying risks across the livestock value chain.
Unlike ordinary El Niño events, the “super” variant prolongs drought, raises ambient temperatures and disrupts rainfall patterns, creating cascading effects on animal health, feed availability and farmer incomes.
Recent government reports highlight the scale of these impacts. The Department of Agriculture estimated that El Niño-related agricultural damage reached ₱15.3 billion in 2024, with livestock losses valued at ₱37.97 million, affecting 25,547 animals nationwide.
These figures, while smaller than crop damage, mask the indirect consequences of protein shortages, disease outbreaks and rising feed costs. Climate scientists have warned that the 2026-2027 Super El Niño could be among the most severe in decades, with projections of prolonged drought across Luzon and the Visayas and erratic rainfall in Mindanao.
This paper integrates species-specific impacts of El Niño with systemic pathways to highlight vulnerabilities in hogs, poultry, ducks, goats, sheep, cattle and carabaos. It also proposes actionable recommendations for climate-resilient water systems, feed security, disease control and cooperative governance to strengthen Philippine livestock resilience in the face of intensifying climate shocks.
Species-specific impacts of Super El Niño
• Hogs
Hogs are highly sensitive to heat stress because of their limited ability to sweat. Elevated ambient temperatures reduce voluntary feed intake, slow growth rates because of the stress hormone cortisol, increase abortion among gestating animals and raise mortality, particularly in backyard operations without evaporative cooling systems.
Direct impacts include stunting, longer fattening cycles, lower feed conversion efficiency, lower-quality carcasses and higher veterinary costs. Reduced availability of corn and soybean meal can create feed shortages that drive up production costs.
At the same time, weakened immune responses caused by heat and nutritional stress may increase disease vulnerability, potentially worsening the impacts of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome and African swine fever outbreaks.
Case studies from Central Luzon show mortality spikes of 10% to 15% in smallholder farms, with farmers reporting losses compounded by rising feed prices. Commercial hog raisers invest in evaporative cooling and automated ventilation, but these technologies remain inaccessible to smallholders, widening inequality in resilience.
The DA reported ₱37.97 million in livestock damage in 2024, with hogs comprising a significant share. Hogs therefore face systemic risks from both physiological stress and structural weaknesses in feed and disease management.
• Broiler chickens
Broiler chickens are highly sensitive to heat stress, which reduces feed conversion efficiency and slows growth. During Super El Niño, mortality rates rise in poorly ventilated facilities, with smallholder farmers reporting losses of up to 20%.
Direct impacts include reduced market weights and higher feed-to-meat ratios, while indirect effects stem from corn shortages that compromise feed quality. Nutritional pathways are disrupted as protein intake declines, leading to weaker immune systems and higher susceptibility to avian influenza.
Case studies in Mindanao show broiler mortality increasing during peak drought, with farmers forced to sell underweight chickens at lower market prices. Commercial farms mitigate risks through tunnel ventilation and misting systems, but these require significant capital investment.
The DA said poultry losses contributed to the ₱15.3 billion in agricultural damage in 2024. Broiler production thus faces dual challenges: physiological stress from heat and systemic vulnerability from feed and disease pressures.
• Layer chickens
Layer chickens experience significant declines in egg production during Super El Niño. Heat stress reduces feed intake, leading to lower egg volumes, thinner shells and diminished nutrient density.
Direct impacts include reduced hatchability and lower marketable egg output, while indirect effects stem from poor feed quality and micronutrient deficiencies.
Case studies in Batangas show egg production declines of up to 30%, forcing cooperatives to import feed supplements to stabilize output. Farmers report increased shell breakage and reduced consumer confidence in egg quality.
Nutritional pathways are disrupted as corn and soybean shortages reduce protein and calcium intake, directly affecting egg formation. Commercial farms invest in cooling systems and dietary supplements, but smallholders struggle to maintain profitability.
The DA highlighted poultry-egg losses as part of the ₱9.89 billion in El Niño damage in 2024. Layer production therefore faces systemic risks from both physiological stress and structural feed shortages, threatening household protein supply.
• Ducks
Ducks, traditionally resilient because of their adaptation to wetlands, face fertility declines and reduced egg production when wetlands dry up during Super El Niño. Direct impacts include lower hatch rates and reduced duck meat supply, while indirect effects stem from ecological disruption as aquatic forage diminishes.
To cover feed costs in duck egg production, ducks should produce at least 70%; lower output could cause economic losses and eventually empty duck houses.
Case studies in Pampanga show duck raisers abandoning operations because of wetland loss, highlighting the indirect ecological impacts of climate anomalies. Nutritional pathways are disrupted as ducks lose access to aquatic plants and invertebrates, reducing protein intake.
Farmers report declines in balut production, a culturally significant product, with economic losses compounded by reduced consumer demand. Commercial duck farms attempt to substitute feed with rice bran and corn, but rising costs erode profitability.
The DA noted that waterfowl losses contributed to overall livestock damage in 2024. Ducks thus illustrate how Super El Niño disrupts not only physiology but also ecological niches critical to production.
• Goats and sheep
Goats and sheep, often raised in marginal areas, suffer weight loss and reduced fertility under drought conditions. Direct impacts include lower carcass weights and reduced milk yields, while indirect effects stem from forage scarcity and parasite outbreaks.
Case studies in Ilocos Norte show mortality rates rising by 10% to 15% because of weakened immunity, with farmers reporting increased veterinary costs. Nutritional pathways are compromised as forage quality declines, leading to protein deficiencies and slower growth.
Farmers rely on crop residues to supplement feed, but these are also reduced during drought. Commercial goat farms attempt to mitigate losses through silage and concentrate feeding, but smallholders lack access to such inputs.
The DA reported that small ruminant losses contributed to the ₱37.97 million in livestock damage in 2024. Goats and sheep therefore face systemic risks from both physiological stress and structural weaknesses in forage supply and disease management.
• Cattle
Cattle experience reduced fertility, lower milk yields and weight loss under heat stress during Super El Niño. Direct impacts include delayed fattening cycles and reduced beef quality, while indirect effects stem from forage scarcity and disease stress.
Case studies in Bukidnon show dairy cooperatives reporting milk yield declines of 20% to 25%, with farmers struggling to maintain herd health. Nutritional pathways are disrupted as forage scarcity forces reliance on low-quality feed, reducing protein intake and milk quality.
Farmers report increased veterinary costs and reduced profitability, with some abandoning dairy operations. Commercial farms invest in silage and concentrate feeding, but smallholders lack access to such inputs.
The DA noted that cattle losses contributed to overall livestock damage in 2024. Cattle production therefore faces systemic risks from both physiological stress and structural weaknesses in forage and disease management, threatening both beef and dairy supply.
• Carabaos
Carabaos, vital for draft power in rice farming in rural areas, suffer dehydration and reduced work capacity during Super El Niño. Direct impacts include lower reproductive performance and reduced availability for farm labor, while indirect effects stem from forage scarcity and farmer abandonment of carabao use.
Case studies in Nueva Ecija highlight farmers abandoning carabao use because of weakened animals, increasing reliance on mechanized plowing. Nutritional pathways are disrupted as forage scarcity reduces energy intake, directly affecting work capacity.
Farmers report reduced milk yields and reproductive performance, with economic losses compounded by higher mechanization costs. Commercial carabao farms attempt to mitigate losses through silage and concentrate feeding, but smallholders lack access to such inputs.
The DA noted that carabao losses contributed to overall livestock damage in 2024. Carabaos thus illustrate how Super El Niño disrupts not only physiology but also farm labor systems critical to rice production.
Scenario modeling of Super El Niño impacts on livestock
The scenario modeling in Table 1 quantifies projected economic losses across livestock species under mild, moderate and severe Super El Niño conditions. It highlights the scale of vulnerability and the differentiated impacts by species.
Hogs show the largest potential losses, ranging from ₱500 million to ₱700 million under mild conditions to ₱2 billion to ₱2.5 billion under severe scenarios. This reflects their sensitivity to heat stress and dependence on corn-based feed, which is heavily disrupted during drought. Mortality spikes and heightened African swine fever risks compound direct production losses, making hogs the most economically exposed species.
Broilers follow closely, with losses projected at ₱300 million to ₱400 million under mild conditions and up to ₱2 billion under severe drought. The decline in feed conversion efficiency under heat stress directly reduces market weights, while indirect effects include higher susceptibility to avian influenza. This underscores the fragility of poultry meat supply chains during climate extremes.
Layers, or egg production, show losses from ₱200 million to ₱300 million to ₱1.2 billion to ₱1.5 billion. Egg production drops sharply under heat stress, with thinner shells and reduced nutrient density affecting both marketability and consumer nutrition. This has implications for food security, as eggs are a critical protein source for low-income households.
Ducks are less economically significant but still vulnerable, with losses ranging from ₱100 million to ₱150 million to ₱600 million to ₱800 million. Their dependence on wetlands makes them particularly exposed to ecological disruption, as drought reduces aquatic forage and breeding habitats. The decline in balut production illustrates cultural as well as economic impacts.
Goats and sheep show smaller but notable losses, from ₱80 million to ₱120 million to ₱400 million to ₱600 million. Their resilience in marginal areas is undermined by forage scarcity and parasite outbreaks, leading to weight loss and reduced fertility. While their economic value is lower, they are critical for smallholder livelihoods in upland regions.
Cattle losses range from ₱250 million to ₱350 million to ₱1.2 billion to ₱1.6 billion, reflecting declines in both beef and dairy production. Heat stress reduces fertility and milk yields, while forage scarcity forces reliance on low-quality feed. Dairy cooperatives in Bukidnon have already reported yield declines of 20% to 25% during drought, illustrating the severity of impacts.
Carabaos show losses from ₱150 million to ₱200 million to ₱700 million to ₱900 million. Their reduced draft power directly affects rice farming, increasing reliance on mechanized plowing and raising production costs. This highlights how livestock impacts cascade into crop systems, amplifying food security risks.
Overall, under severe Super El Niño, total livestock losses could reach ₱7.6 billion to ₱9.9 billion. This scale of damage underscores the systemic vulnerability of Philippine livestock systems, where direct physiological stress interacts with feed shortages, disease outbreaks and ecological disruption. The differentiated impacts by species also highlight the need for tailored interventions: Hog and poultry systems require feed and disease management, while ruminants and carabaos need forage and water infrastructure.
Table 1. Scenario Modeling of Super El Niño Impacts on Livestock
| Species | Mild impact | Moderate impact | Severe impact | Key notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hogs | ₱500 million to ₱700 million | ₱1.2 billion to ₱1.5 billion | ₱2 billion to ₱2.5 billion | Mortality spikes; ASF risk |
| Broilers | ₱300 million to ₱400 million | ₱800 million to ₱1 billion | ₱1.5 billion to ₱2 billion | Feed conversion decline |
| Layers | ₱200 million to ₱300 million | ₱600 million to ₱800 million | ₱1.2 billion to ₱1.5 billion | Egg production drop |
| Ducks | ₱100 million to ₱150 million | ₱300 million to ₱400 million | ₱600 million to ₱800 million | Wetland loss |
Socioeconomic impacts of Super El Niño
The socioeconomic impacts of Super El Niño on Philippine livestock systems reveal differentiated vulnerabilities across species, as shown in Table 2.
Hogs are among the most affected, with farmgate prices projected to rise by 10% to 15% and consumer prices by 12% to 18%. This increase is driven by feed shortages and heightened risks of African swine fever, which has previously devastated hog industries in Asia and disrupted supply chains. Employment losses in hog production could reach 40,000 to 60,000, while pork intake among households may decline by 8% to 12%.
Broiler chicken systems face similar stress, with consumer prices rising 15% to 20% and employment losses estimated at 30,000 to 40,000, particularly among contract growers and feed mill workers. Heat stress and disease outbreaks reduce feed conversion efficiency, leading to a 10% to 15% decline in chicken intake. ASEAN imports are expected to rise by 12% to 20%, reflecting regional trade adjustments.
Layer systems show moderate vulnerability, with consumer prices increasing 10% to 15% and employment losses of 20,000 to 25,000. Egg intake may decline by 10% to 12%, though imports remain limited because of the perishability and low tradability of eggs.
Duck production, tied to wetland ecosystems, experiences smaller but significant impacts. Consumer prices rise 8% to 12%, with 10,000 to 15,000 jobs lost and household intake down 5% to 7%. Imports are negligible, underscoring the cultural specificity of duck egg and meat consumption in the Philippines.
Goats and sheep are affected by forage scarcity, leading to consumer price increases of 12% to 15% and employment losses of 15,000 to 20,000. Household intake declines by 8% to 10%, while imports from Australia and New Zealand rise by 5% to 10%, reflecting dependence on external ruminant supply chains.
Cattle systems are among the hardest hit, with consumer prices rising 20% to 25% and employment losses of 25,000 to 30,000. Beef and milk intake decline by 12% to 15%, while dairy and beef imports increase by 15% to 20%, exposing the Philippines to global price volatility.
Carabaos, critical for draft power and milk, face consumer price increases of 15% to 20% and employment losses of 20,000 to 25,000. Household intake of carabao milk declines by 10% to 12%, though imports remain negligible because of the localized nature of carabao production.
In aggregate, these species-specific shocks translate into consumer price increases of 15% to 25%, employment losses of 160,000 to 200,000 and a 15% to 20% decline in household protein intake. Import dependence rises by 20% to 30%, underscoring systemic vulnerability to global market fluctuations.
These findings highlight the need for integrated policy responses that combine feed security, disease management and cooperative governance to stabilize production and consumption chains.
Table 2. Socioeconomic Chain Impacts by Species
| Species | Farmgate price change | Consumer price change | Employment effects | Household nutrition | Import dependence |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hogs | +10% to +15% | +12% to +18% | 40,000 to 60,000 jobs at risk | Pork intake down 8% to 12% | Imports from the EU and U.S. rise 10% to 15% |
| Broilers | +12% to +18% | +15% to +20% | 30,000 to 40,000 jobs lost, including contract growers and feed mill workers | Chicken intake down 10% to 15% | ASEAN imports rise 12% to 20% |
| Layers | +8% to +12% | +10% to +15% | 20,000 to 25,000 jobs lost | Egg intake down 10% to 12% | Imports limited because eggs are less tradable |
| Ducks | +5% to +8% | +8% to +12% | 10,000 to 15,000 jobs lost | Duck egg and meat intake down 5% to 7% | Imports negligible |
| Goats and sheep | +10% to +12% | +12% to +15% | 15,000 to 20,000 jobs lost | Goat meat and milk intake down 8% to 10% | Imports from Australia and New Zealand rise 5% to 10% |
| Cattle | +15% to +20% | +20% to +25% | 25,000 to 30,000 jobs lost | Beef and milk intake down 12% to 15% | Dairy and beef imports rise 15% to 20% |
| Carabaos | +10% to +15% | +15% to +20% | 20,000 to 25,000 jobs lost in draft power and transport | Carabao milk intake down 10% to 12% | Imports negligible |
| Aggregate | +10% to +20% | +15% to +25% | 160,000 to 200,000 jobs lost | Protein intake down 15% to 20% | Import dependence up 20% to 30% |
Aggregated socioeconomic negative impacts of the 2026-2027 Super El Niño
The total socioeconomic negative impacts of the 2026-2027 Super El Niño on Philippine livestock systems amount to approximately ₱159 billion to ₱205 billion in combined household welfare losses, employment shocks and import costs, as shown in Table 3.
Given the baseline livestock and poultry market size of approximately ₱480 billion annually, species-specific shocks translate into consumer price increases of 15% to 25%, equivalent to an additional ₱95 billion to ₱120 billion in household food expenditures over 2026-2027.
Employment losses of 160,000 to 200,000 jobs correspond to an estimated ₱18 billion to ₱22 billion in foregone rural wages and incomes, disproportionately affecting contract growers, feed mill workers and smallholder livestock keepers.
Household protein intake declines by 15% to 20%, which translates into nutritional welfare losses valued at ₱6 billion to ₱8 billion, considering the cost of dietary substitution and increased malnutrition risks.
Import dependence rises by 20% to 30%, requiring an additional ₱40 billion to ₱55 billion in meat, dairy and feed imports, exposing the Philippines to global price volatility and foreign exchange pressures.
The species-level monetary breakdown of the socioeconomic negative impacts of the 2026-2027 Super El Niño on Philippine livestock systems was disaggregated. This breakdown traces the ₱159 billion to ₱205 billion in aggregate socioeconomic losses to specific subsectors, as shown in Table 3.
Hogs and broilers account for the largest share of socioeconomic losses, with ₱87 billion to ₱108 billion combined, reflecting their dominance in Philippine protein consumption and vulnerability to feed shortages and disease outbreaks.
Cattle and carabaos contribute ₱36 billion to ₱45 billion in losses, driven by milk yield declines, beef shortages and reduced draft power affecting rice farming and transport.
Eggs and ducks have smaller but still significant impacts of ₱16 billion to ₱21 billion, with nutrition losses concentrated in poor households that rely on eggs and duck eggs as affordable protein sources.
Goat and sheep losses of ₱10 billion to ₱13 billion highlight the vulnerability of upland smallholders dependent on forage availability. Import dependence costs of ₱28 billion to ₱35 billion are concentrated in hogs, broilers and cattle, underscoring systemic exposure to global market volatility.
Overall, the socioeconomic negative impacts of the 2026-2027 Super El Niño on Philippine livestock systems underscore the systemic vulnerability of the sector, where direct physiological stress interacts with feed shortages, disease outbreaks and ecological disruption.
Integrated policy responses — such as feed security programs, disease management, water infrastructure and cooperative governance — are urgently needed to stabilize production and consumption chains.
Table 3. Monetary Breakdown by Species
| Species | Consumer price inflation and household welfare losses | Employment and rural income losses | Import dependence costs | Total socioeconomic losses |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hogs | ₱35 billion to ₱45 billion | ₱5 billion to ₱6 billion | ₱10 billion to ₱12 billion | ₱50 billion to ₱63 billion |
| Broilers | ₱25 billion to ₱30 billion | ₱4 billion to ₱5 billion | ₱8 billion to ₱10 billion | ₱37 billion to ₱45 billion |
| Layers | ₱10 billion to ₱12 billion | ₱2 billion to ₱3 billion | Negligible, or less than ₱1 billion | ₱12 billion to ₱15 billion |
| Ducks | ₱3 billion to ₱4 billion | ₱1 billion to ₱1.5 billion | Negligible | ₱4 billion to ₱6 billion |
| Goats and sheep | ₱6 billion to ₱8 billion | ₱2 billion to ₱2.5 billion | ₱2 billion to ₱3 billion | ₱10 billion to ₱13 billion |
| Cattle | ₱15 billion to ₱18 billion | ₱3 billion to ₱4 billion | ₱8 billion to ₱10 billion | ₱26 billion to ₱32 billion |
| Carabaos | ₱8 billion to ₱10 billion | ₱2 billion to ₱2.5 billion | Negligible | ₱10 billion to ₱13 billion |
| Aggregate | ₱102 billion to ₱127 billion | ₱19 billion to ₱24 billion | ₱28 billion to ₱35 billion | ₱159 billion to ₱205 billion |
Sources: Consumer price inflation and household welfare losses were derived from PSA baseline livestock market values adjusted with FAO climate-livestock impact percentages for heat stress, feed shortages and disease outbreaks. Employment and rural income losses were based on PSA employment data in livestock subsectors, multiplied by World Bank rural wage loss estimates under climate shocks. Import dependence costs were modeled using International Trade Centre trade flow data and USDA commodity reports, reflecting increased reliance on pork, poultry and dairy imports during supply shocks. Carabao and duck import costs were treated as negligible, supported by PCAARRD carabao program data and Philippine Institute for Development Studies duck sector studies.
Annex A shows the quantitative estimation of socioeconomic impacts of Super El Niño on Philippine livestock systems in 2026-2027.
Key findings and policy response
The analysis of Super El Niño’s impacts on Philippine livestock systems underscores multidimensional vulnerabilities that cut across species, production systems and farmer livelihoods.
Direct physiological stress — manifested in reduced feed intake, slower growth, fertility decline and mortality — interacts with indirect pathways such as feed shortages, disease outbreaks and ecological disruption.
Scenario modeling shows hogs and poultry as the most economically exposed, with losses reaching billions of pesos because of mortality spikes, feed conversion decline and heightened risks of African swine fever and avian influenza.
Ruminants such as cattle, goats and sheep, though less dominant in market share, remain critical to smallholder resilience. Carabaos illustrate how livestock stress cascades into crop production systems by reducing draft power for rice farming. Ducks, often overlooked, reveal how ecological niches such as wetlands are integral to sustaining culturally significant products such as balut.
The socioeconomic dimension magnifies these vulnerabilities. Consumer price inflation of 15% to 25% translates into ₱95 billion to ₱120 billion in additional household food expenditures, while employment losses of 160,000 to 200,000 jobs correspond to ₱18 billion to ₱22 billion in foregone rural wages.
Household protein intake declines by 15% to 20%, valued at ₱6 billion to ₱8 billion in nutritional welfare losses, while import dependence rises by 20% to 30%, requiring ₱40 billion to ₱55 billion in additional meat, dairy and feed imports.
In aggregate, the socioeconomic negative impacts of the 2026-2027 Super El Niño amount to ₱159 billion to ₱205 billion, underscoring systemic vulnerability to both domestic shocks and global market volatility.
Policy pathways must therefore be both systemic and targeted. Climate-resilient water systems, feed reserves and veterinary support are immediate priorities. Cooperative governance and insurance mechanisms can buffer farmer losses, while research into heat-tolerant breeds and adaptive feeding strategies offers long-term resilience.
Ultimately, addressing Super El Niño’s impacts on livestock is not only about protecting animals but also about safeguarding the food security, cultural heritage and economic stability of millions of Filipino households.
Without decisive action, the cascading effects of climate extremes will deepen vulnerabilities. With integrated and implementable interventions, resilience can be strengthened across species, supply chains and communities.
Implementable Recommendations
- Climate-resilient water systems: Establish community-level water reservoirs and solar-powered pumping systems for livestock drinking and cooling. Prioritize drought-prone provinces such as Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Ilocos Norte for infrastructure investment.
- Feed security and buffer stocks: Develop strategic corn and forage reserves managed by cooperatives. Promote silage-making and crop residue use to stabilize feed supply during drought.
- Disease control and veterinary support: Accelerate deployment of ASF, PRRS and avian influenza vaccines. Expand mobile veterinary clinics to reach smallholder farms during climate emergencies.
- Farmer insurance and cooperative governance: Scale up climate-indexed livestock insurance to buffer farmer losses. Strengthen livestock cooperatives to pool resources for cooling systems, feed procurement and veterinary care.
- Research and extension services: Invest in heat-tolerant livestock breeds, including improved native breeds, and adaptive feeding strategies. Expand farmer training and field school programs on climate-smart livestock management.
- Integration with crop-livestock systems: Promote integrated rice-livestock systems where crop residues feed animals and manure enriches soil. Support carabao-based mechanization alternatives to reduce dependence on weakened draft animals.
Renato Vega, Ph.D., is a full professor at the Institute of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños.
Teodoro C. Mendoza, Ph.D., is a retired professor and UP scientist at the Institute of Crop Sciences, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños.
